Particles Making Up a Large Mass

To understand the London Force or gravity it is important to understand how groups of particle stick together. This stickiness is additive and as an object gets bigger there tends to be a larger force pulling the mass together. I'd like to look at why.

A sphere is going to be more crowded at the center than at the periphery. Secondly, an atom may be modeled as a sphere with electrons on the outside and with an ionic core. The electrons on the outside of atoms will interact at the center of a mass (perhaps a sphere) and produce an elevated negative charge level as one approaches the center of mass. The opposite occurs at the periphery of a sphere of mass becomes more relatively positive than the center. The mass doesn’t have to be a sphere.

At the periphery of mass the atoms and molecules will seem to bend outwards. The negative charge will be relatively sparse compared with the center of mass. An inversion layer will look to occur now between the charge at the center and periphery of the mass. This inversion layer is similar to that of a semiconductor depletion layer except it is a progression throughout the mass rather than a discrete line between different doping profiles in a semiconductor.

Electrons will push outwards from the center of mass to the periphery. Charge balance will pull them back. Electrons and holes will be dragged towards the center of mass. This creates the London force or gravity.

Maxwell's Equations Restated

If I could modify Maxwell's equations to make them more practical I'd take them one by one. First of all the equations we call Maxwell's are Heaviside's restatement, using vector calculus, of Maxwell's nine equations. Maxwell's equations were put together before Bohr put together the model for the atom. Some updates should really be made.

The Maxwell-Gauss equation for electric fields shows electric fields terminating at charge points. This equation defines how electric fields look.

The Maxwell-Gauss equation for magnetic fields may not tell us much. If we take a magnetic field to be the normal vector in the spin of an electron field then there may not be much going on with this equation. The Maxwell-Gauss equation for magnetism says simply that the divergence of a curl is equal to zero. This is a vector calculus identity!

The Maxwell-Ampere equation states that the curl of a magnetic field is equal to the volume current density. This tells us that a current carrying wire will be surrounded by a magnetic field elliptically around the current carrying wire.

What is equally interesting to the Maxwell-Ampere equation is the fact that the curl of electric charge movement through space yields a magnetic field around the current carrier. This can be found directly from the Maxwell-Ampere equation but is worth restating in its own equation. After all, it defines all electro-magnets.

The Maxwell-Faraday equation is the most complicated and nuanced of Maxwell's equations. It seems that a changing magnetic field causes a curl in the electric field. Coils moving through a magnetic field will likely have their spins line up with the spins in the magnetic field. The conservation of angular momentum comes in to play and a reverse circular movement of electrons produces an electromotive force.

So rather than using Heaviside-Maxwell's four equations I'd use Maxwell-Ampere's equation, Maxwell-Ampere's modified equation above and the Maxwell-Faraday's equation to explain electromagnetics.

Inductance and Random Movement of Electrons

Inducing a magnetic field has long been referred to as inductance. When a curling field of electrons is induced in a region of space it is said to have a magnetic field. The more curl to the field the greater the magnetic field intensity. The electrons can really get spinning and if we look closely we can see that the electrons exhibiting curl in the field have a great deal of order to them. The flux of the flow is said to be inductive but it could also be described as curling.

We can also make observations with the opposite phenomenon. When there is no curling to the movement of electrons they tend to move randomly. There is no tight packing of molecules or atoms in the space where this random movement of electrons exists. The matter falls out of these spaces and we have a relative vacuum. This vacuum is nothing like a proper vacuum there is just less flux to the flow of electrons in the region where random motion of electrons exists.

Consider the experiment where two wires are place next to each other with odd mode current running through them. The flux of the flow is additive causing the curl from each wire's ejected electrons to add. This adds order to the system. Extra curl in the electron field draws in more ions and matter to force the two wires apart.

Consider the experiment where two wires are place next to each other with common mode current running through them. The flux of the flow subtracts with the curl from one wire's ejected electrons canceling the curl from the electrons on the other wire. The result is randomness. Electrons moving about a different manner will scatter and make it difficult for matter or ions to exist there. The wires will move closer to each other as a result. 

Capacitance and Electron Movement in the Dielectric

Capacitors store charge on parallel plates. The question I'd like to answer is how are the electrons moving in order to store the charge. Electrons flow into the negative plate of the capacitor during charging. An equal number of electrons flow out of the positive terminal during this charging process.

Electrons flow into and out of a capacitor. There are also reports that the dielectric region in the middle of the capacitor is polarized when charged. Dipole type molecules form dielectrics whose poles line up against the incident electric field. This description of capacitor action seems static and lifeless. Clearly there is a lot going on in a charging or charged capacitor.

The statistics of electron flow involve multiple interactions with a conducting lattice or a non-conducting dielectric. How fast electrons back-fill incident electrons must also be examined. If an electron travels into a dielectric material with a high amount of potential energy that electron will leave behind a hole. The hole draw an electron from the dielectric. This enables the polarizing electrical engineering profs talk about.

If millions of electrons are observed we begin to notice a pattern of behaviour during charging or in a charged capacitor. We observe electrons entering the dielectric with a Poisson type distribution. A certain number of electrons enter the dielectric and then are replaced with a less energetic electron. This continues until the energy in the electrons in the dielectric is equal to the charging voltage. Then the capacitor is said to be charged.

Electrons dive through the dielectric with relatively high kinetic energy. These particles bump back towards the negative plate. This action pushes electrons away at the positive plate. These electrons return toward the electromotive force where they are pumped with negative voltage towards the negative end of the capacitor or elsewhere in the circuit.

Charge, Capacitance and the Transmission Line

A charged plate of a capacitor causes electrons to jump from the more negative plate towards the positive plate. There is very little conductance so most of the electrons ultimately make a round trip. Understanding the electron dynamics helps to understand how capacitors really work.

Dielectric materials are not conductive. If an electron moves into a dielectric kinetically it will be replaced by an electron from the dielectric. The electrons swap places. When a capacitor begins to charge the energy from the swapped electron is far less than the electron moving into the dielectric with significantly more kinetic energy. As time progresses the electrons in the dielectric contain more and more energy in the form of root mean squared velocity until the capacitor is fully charged. At this point the electrons in the dielectric contain enough energy to keep the electrons on the plate stimulated.

The telegrapher's transmission line model has a shunt capacitance. A small proportion of electrons flowing out the dielectric of a conductor will be replaced by electrons from the dielectric. This constant replacement charges the dielectric around the conducting medium. Capacitance, inductance and conductance all describe how electrons leave a transmission line and interact with the surrounding dielectric.