Were We Foolish To Follow Maxwell?

Heaviside interpreted Maxwell's equations as four equations. Let's consider what these four equations really mean.

Maxwell's Gauss equation for electricity states that the charge contained in a volume is equal to the electric field from that volume. Electrons moving at a fraction of the speed of light move far faster than protons and neutrons moving at a fraction of this speed. This root mean squared speed differential leads to Gauss' equation for electricity.

Maxwell Gauss' equation for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux from a volume will always equal zero. This mean that magnetic fields will look elliptical at all times. A magnetic field is a curling field of electrons. If we put a curling electron or current field into the Gauss magnetism equation we get the divergence of a curl is equal to zero. This is a vector calculus identity.

The Maxwell Ampere equation has the curl of a curl. The magnetic field is a curling field of electrons. Those electrons curl from a current of electrons due to the electron's tendency to orbit surrounding nuclei. The magnetic field is the curl vector from the field of rotating electrons. These magnetic fields bend elliptically around currents.

The Maxwell Faraday equation states the change in magnetic field causes a curl in the electric field. Understanding how electrons curl is instrumental to understanding this equation. When a conductive curled wire enters or turns in a magnetic field the field induces tight curls of electrons in the wire. At a higher level the electrons oppose the tight curls due to conservation of angular momentum. As the curls of the electrons change there is a brief counter curl at the macroscopic level in the curled conductor.

Conductivity: How Does It Work

How does conductivity work. Normally we talk about 'free' electrons carrying charge through a lattice. An electron puts electrostatic pressure on the lattice by moving into one end of the lattice. Another electron moves out of the lattice near the 'load'.

Free electrons and lattices with holes have been observed to conduct. More well balanced material does not. I want to explore why. When an insulator is injected with a hot electron it gives up an electron quickly.

Electrons propagate their influence in a conductor at very high speeds. The wave of electrical influence propagates at a fraction of the speed of light.

Atoms and molecules that are electrically balanced, bonded and are not prone to ionization make poor conductors. These electrons may slow the drift of charge such that it gets reflected back to the source or the generator.

Sharp Charge - Dull Charge

Look at both sides of the periodic table. Ignore the balanced noble gases. Chlorine and the halogens have almost full valence bands they will attract negative charge now and then with statistically spurious positive charge from the nucleus of the atom. If a spurious electron briefly fills the valance band of the Chlorine atom the atom is said to be negatively charged.

The forces of charged particles pulling at a small distance will be far from uniform. Sharp charge pulls far and statistically seldom (Poisson). Dull charge pulls a short distance with a more constant force.

The act of an electron jumping quickly from a surface or a molecule leads to a net force in the opposing direction as the electrons backfill the electron that has jumped. The electrons that jump seem to move through thin air unopposed while the backfill electrons bump into matter and drag this matter with them. 

Electrons tend to move in an orbiting manner. There are statistical orbitals that have been deemed likely places to find electrons. These orbitals rotate quickly as electrons are moving at a real fraction of the speed of light. These orbitals will tend towards spherical or elliptical orbits. These stable configurations for electron movement become the building blocks for atoms and molecules alike.

Mechanism for Magnetic Force

Magnetism is caused by a curl in the field of moving electrons. How these curling fields interact is key to understanding the magnetic force. When a magnetic South pole is inverted and approaches a magnetic North pole the inversion causes the fields to line up with the same curl. This curl attracts density and as a result the two poles come together.

When a magnetic North pole is inverted and moved towards another North pole there is a repelling effect. The spinning electrons cannot simply begin spinning in the opposite direction. The spinning electrons wrap back towards the nearest South pole. This spinning field near both North poles attracts gaseous matter in the way of air and keeps the two poles apart.

When two wires are conducting current in opposite directions they are pushed apart. The current on each wire eddies off of the wire creating a curling magnetic field. When this curl is additive the air in between the wires increases. This causes the wires to be pushed apart.

When two wires are conducting current in the same direction these wires are pulled towards each other. The current on each wire eddies off the wire creating a curling electron field. When this curl cancels the electron fields from the other wire the electrons will disperse. In this electron dead environment matter does not have an easy time sticking around. The less matter there is between the two wires the closer they will come to each other.

Maxwell's Equations

Maxwell-Gauss equation for electricity shows the path of ballistic or drift of hot charge carriers.

Maxwell-Gauss equation for magnetism shows the opposite of the normal vector to the path of curling electrons.

The Maxwell-Ampere equation describes curling electrons around a current. The current eddies out around surrounding molecules giving rise to this effect. The curl of the curl of the electron field can be seen as a current in some instances.

The Maxwell-Faraday equation the change in a curling electron field will create a looser electron circulation in the opposite direction to the electron field. This opposite circulation is due to conservation of angular momentum.

Asymmetric Capacitors and Ion Movement

NASA published the paper Asymmetrical Capacitors for Propulsion by Canning et al. and the American Institute of Physics published High Efficiency Lifter Based on the Biefeld-Brown Effect by Einat and Kalderon. The Army Research Laboratory published Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor by Bahder and Fazi.

An asymmetric capacitor is constructed with a large grounded electrode and a positive small electrode. A cloud of electrons is emitted from the large electrode. These electrons are accelerated towards the positive electrode. Some of the electrons hit the electrode but many miss and fly in a ballistic manner upwards past the positive electrode into the dielectric.

Electrons drift down to back-fill the electrons that have moved up. More electrons are emitted from the large electrode.The electrons emitted from the large electrode are accelerated. Momentum is distributed in a sparse manner above the capacitor because of the high velocity of the electrons. Momentum is zero in the region of acceleration. Momentum is downwards and highly concentrated below the large electrode of the capacitor.

Asymmetric Capacitors and Force

NASA published the paper Asymmetrical Capacitors for Propulsion by Canning et al. and the American Institute of Physics published High Efficiency Lifter Based on the Biefeld-Brown Effect by Einat and Kalderon. The Army Research Laboratory published Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor by Bahder and Fazi.

Asymmetric capacitors most likely cause electrons or ions to go ballistic in the space between the two electrodes. Many of the ballistic electrons likely overshoot the small electrode causing a net momentum increase above the capacitor. Momentum is conserved and larger ions and even molecules drift towards the larger electrode.

The momentum is very concentrated at the bottom of the capacitor because the velocity of the particles is far less than those ions moving in a ballistic manner in the opposite direction. The drift ions most likely undergo many collisions with other molecules and move in a slower manner causing pressure at the far end of the larger electrode.

Ballistic movement of small particles in one direction towards the small electrode. This causes a drift movement of molecules in the other direction, towards the large electrode, causing a pressure differential. This will cause a net force pointing from the large electrode towards the small electrode.